Simplified translation:
It's pretty clear that if a rifle's grooves make one full turn in 24 or 30 inches, making the barrel longer than that doesn't improve accuracy. However, for military rifles, a longer barrel might help with bayonet charges and give the bullet a bit more push from the blast. But no matter the twist, 33 inches is the longest a barrel should be if you're only thinking about shooting accuracy.

Simplified translation:
When you fire a gun, the stress on the gun isn't from the bullet rubbing against the barrel but from the bullet's resistance to start moving. In a long barrel with a quick twist, it's really hard for the bullet to move near the end of the barrel. While small amounts of gunpowder work well, adding more doesn't make the bullet go higher. But if you shorten the barrel, you can use more gunpowder to make the bullet go higher.

Simplified translation:
When it comes to how fast the bullet spins in the barrel, I've never seen anything better than one full turn every 24 inches, which General Jacob first suggested. Mr. Whitworth says for his hexagonal barrel, one turn in 20 inches works best. The two-groove rifle, or the Brunswick rifle, has clear problems for long shots. It does better with a bullet shaped like a cylinder with a cone on top than a ball with a belt, but it's not great beyond 300 yards. It can't really compete with the longer-range guns we have now. A rifle with four grooves is better than those with more or fewer grooves.

Here's what we've learned:

• The twist should be the same all the way from the back to the front of the barrel, not less than one full turn every two feet.

• With one turn in 24 inches, the barrel doesn't need to be longer than two feet; it shouldn't be longer than 33 inches, no matter what.

• A four-groove rifle is better than one with more or fewer grooves.

• The grooves should just be deep enough to make the bullet spin. Shallower grooves give better results than deeper ones, if everything else is the same.

General John Jacob (1812-1858) was a British Army officer who made significant contributions to the development of firearms, particularly with what became known as the Jacob's Rifle.

• Background: Jacob served with the East India Company in India, where he was involved in both military operations and the administration of the territories under British control. He was known for his innovative spirit and practical approach to military engineering.

• The Jacob's Rifle: Design: Jacob designed a percussion double-barreled rifle, which was quite unique for its time. It was chambered for a 32-bore (.524 caliber) bullet. The rifle featured four-groove rifling, which was an advancement over the two-groove Brunswick rifle then in use by British forces.

• Bullet Design: The rifle used a special bullet with studs or "wings" that fit mechanically into the rifling, providing better accuracy and stability in flight. Jacob also developed an exploding bullet variant, which was meant to destroy ammunition wagons or artillery at long range.

• Sighting: The rifle was equipped with sights calibrated for ranges up to an ambitious 2,000 yards. This was part of Jacob's vision to create a weapon effective at long distances, suitable for the open terrains of India's Northwest Frontier where he served.

• Military Application: Jacob intended for his rifle to arm a special unit he was forming, known as "Jacob's Rifles." However, after his death in 1858, the rifles were not widely adopted by the British military. Most were returned to storage, and eventually, many were sold as surplus or converted for hunting purposes, especially for big game in Africa.

• Legacy: Although not widely adopted in his lifetime, Jacob's rifle design is noted for its innovative approach to bullet stabilization and ranged accuracy. His work contributed to the broader understanding of ballistics and rifle design in the 19th century. Some of these rifles survive today as collector's items, valued for their historical significance and rarity. They are occasionally mentioned in antique arms circles, with some examples sold at auctions or featured in museums.

• Manufacturing: Swinburne & Son in England was commissioned to produce these rifles based on Jacob's specifications. After his death, while the initial order was fulfilled, the rifles did not see widespread military service.

• Cultural Impact: The Jacob's Rifle, while not a military success, is remembered in the lore of firearms history for its ambition and technical innovation. It reflects the era's experimentation with rifle technology, aiming to combine accuracy with destructive capability at long distances.

Jacob's contributions to rifle technology are thus seen more as a pioneering effort in firearm design rather than a broadly adopted military solution. His work laid some groundwork for later developments in rifling and bullet design.

I find this very interesting that this was prior to the decision to leverage the Enfield... Benjamin Robins continues as written: "The Enfield and the elliptie-bored rifles demand particular attention, because both may be classed under the denomination of 'regulation arms;' and for some time to come, one or the other will unquestionably be the weapon provided for the British army at large, as well as for Volunteers. It was indeed high time that our gallant soldiers should be provided with something better than that wretched implement, the much lauded 'Brown Bess' of other days. It was, in fact, the very clumsiest and worst contrived of any firelock in the world. It required the largest charge of powder and the heaviest ball of any; yet, owing to the absence of every scientific principle in its construction, its weight and windage were the greatest, its range the shortest, and it accuracy the least, at the same time that it was the most costly of any similar arm in use either in France, Belgium, Prussia, or Austria."

Simplified translation:
The Enfield and rifles with an elliptical bore are important because they're both considered standard military weapons. They'll likely be the guns given to the British army and volunteers for a while. It was about time our brave soldiers got something better than the old, much-praised "Brown Bess," which was actually the clumsiest and worst-designed gun around. It needed a lot of powder and a big bullet, but because it wasn't built with any science in mind, it was heavy, had a lot of space for the bullet to move around, shot the shortest distance, and was the least accurate. Plus, it was more expensive than similar weapons in France, Belgium, Prussia, or Austria.

Ouch!

What is an elliptical bore?

In January 1852, the British Board of Ordnance started working on what would become the Pattern 1853 Enfield Rifle Musket.

Charles William Lancaster submitted his "oval bore" design, which looked like a smoothbore but had a slightly oval shape, going from .543” by .557” at the back to .540” by .55” at the front. The barrel twisted, creating rifling similar to what would later be patented by Whitworth and Richards. The twist got faster from the back to the front of the gun.

The chapter continues with the author criticizing the lack of science that went into past English military service.

"But will anything excuse the absurd tenacity with which our military authorities pertinaciously clung to their miserable firelock long after science had again and again indicated the means of providing the army with small-arms of tenfold greater power?"

In 1852 he describes the Enfield rifle as it was adopted:

• We fitted for the purpose but doesn't match up in accuracy compared a Jacobs or Whitworth

• Can be relied on 0-800 yards

• The common barrel is 3ft. 3inc. long

• There was "short Enfield" that was six inches shorter

• The bore is cylindrical

• There are 3x grooves

• Grooves are .115 deep and .230 in width

• The long Enfield rifling makes just one half-turn

• The service charge was 2.5 drachms* (or rather more than 68 grains) of fine-grain powder

What is a drachms: https://fayettevillearsenal.com/collabo ... p=325#p325

• The ball weight was 530 grains and the diameter was .568 but was later replaced with .550 to optimize loading

The author references a "Major Nuthall" of the Bengal army (officer with scientific achievements) identified new ways to modify the standard bullet to better mate and counter the increased windage resulting from a larger bore to accommodate quicker loading. He also devised improvements in rifling as described:

Instead of leaving the edges of the "lands" sharp and angular, he rounded them, and gave them also a curved outline to the grooves themselves. The expansion of the lead is thus greatly facilitated, while friction was diminished. This form of rifling was entirely new at the time.

Major Nuthall was engaged by the War-Office to convert some of the old muskets into serviceable rifles.

Major Nuthall was an officer in the Bengal Army during the British colonial period in India.

• Name and Rank: His full name was John Nuthall, and he held the rank of Major in the Bengal Army.

• Service Period: Major Nuthall's service in India spans from at least the early 19th century. He is recorded as being present in India during the British East India Company's control of the region.

• Notable Events: Monghyr Mutiny (1766): Although this event occurred before his time, it provides context for the tensions within the Bengal Army. Nuthall would have been part of an army that was under scrutiny and undergoing changes post-mutiny.

• Indian Rebellion of 1857: This was a significant event where the Bengal Army was heavily involved. While there is no direct mention of Nuthall's participation, his service in the Bengal Army during this era would have made him part of the broader narrative of the mutiny and subsequent military reorganization.

• Recruitment and Composition: Understanding the Bengal Army's makeup during Nuthall's service, it was primarily composed of Indian troops (sepoys) with British officers. The recruitment was focused on regions like Bihar and Awadh (Oudh), with high-caste Hindus like Brahmans and Rajputs being common recruits before the 1857 rebellion. Post-1857, the army's composition shifted to include more Sikhs, Gurkhas, and others to avoid future uprisings.

• Published Works: There are mentions of Major Nuthall in historical documents, such as in "Ubique: War Services of Officers of the Bengal Army" by T.C. Anderson, which provides biographical details of British officers serving in the Bengal Army around 1861. This indicates he was among the documented officers, though specific details of his career achievements or engagements are not extensively detailed in these sources.

• Legacy: The Bengal Army's legacy, including officers like Major Nuthall, contributed to the military structure that eventually became part of the British Indian Army after 1895. His service would have been during a period of significant transition and reform in the structure and policies of the colonial military forces in India.

The author also references a "Colonel Beaufoy":

"Colonel Beufoy, the author of Schoppetana, one of the best treatises extant on the rifle."

I couldn't find the book on ebay but did find an e-book version on google:

https://play.google.com/store/books/det ... ot=1&pli=1

In recap of this first chapter the author provides "a few words of advice as to the purchase of a rifle". I included a summary below:

length and bend of stock: "No man will ever shoot even tolerably with a gun, or with a rifle, that is not accurately adapted to the length of his arm and neck, and to the shape of his shoulder." - "Try any number (stock) till you find one that suits you exactly; have a pattern cut from this, out of plate of zine, or tin, and let the maker never after, deviate from it even to the extent of an eighth of an inch in any direction."

barrel weight: "The weight in the barrel out to be as much as you can bear without inconvenience. Let me repeat, as I have frequently affirmed before, that no good shooting at long ranges can be expected with a light barrel, at the same time that it is much more liable to injury that one of the stouter make." - " The barrel should not weigh less than six pounds; it would be better still if it weighed seven or even eight."

Material: "The best material of all for barrels is not steel, but a peculiar quality of iron, technically termed "homogeneous iron".

This one didn't age well (TBD). I find the above conclusion very interesting and will research more. For now here is a 2024 perspective comparing iron and steel gun barrels: For gun barrels, steel is generally considered superior to homogeneous iron due to its strength, durability, resistance to wear, and ability to maintain accuracy over thousands of rounds. Modern gun manufacturing predominantly uses various steel alloys, such as chrome-moly or stainless steel, tailored for the specific demands of firearm performance.

Emphasis: "Let me here particularly impress upon every one intended to have a rifle made for him, the extreme importance of insisting that there shall be at least double the ordinary amount of metal in the breech behind the chamber. For some reason, there is the greatest difficulty in inducing gunmakers to conform to this injunction; and yet nothing tends so much to diminish recoil as a solid mass of metal at this particular part, to receive the concussion of the powder and act as a shield to the shoulder."

"It is plain, that if a man were to lie on his back, and in that position were to receive a blow from a sledgehammer on the chest, he would very likely figure as a principal in a coroner's inquest; but were an anvil interposed between the hammer and the man's frame, any number of blows might be struck with impunity."

"Let there be no side vents below the nipple. Many gunmakers have foolish propensity to perpetuate this useless absurdity."

"The mainspring should not draw more than 12 lbs., nor the trigger more than 3lbs."

"Should the rifle be required by the pupil for drill purposes, and not merely for target-practice, it must have a metal rod; but nothing is more injurious to the rifling, than the constant use of these rods, especially in unskilled hands. A tough wooden loading rod, with the grip well roughened, and with brass fittings, would answer every purpose except the one above."

"When cartridges are not employed, a stout brass tube the full length of the barrel, with wooden funnel shaped top, will be found very convenient for delivering accurately the precise charge of powder into the chamber."

"I am not an advocate for greased patches in rifle-shooting. I much prefer using a bullet (that fits the bore within three-four thousands of an inch) coated with a mixture of three parts lard, one part white resin, and one part wax, well boiled together, or, better still, with eleven parts of bees-wax and one part mineral oil."

I'm going to stop there. If you want to learn how to coat the bullet I recommend seeking out this book.