Hand-Book For Hythe - Hans Busk, M.A, D.L - 1860

[adavis]

I'm fascinated by the Whitworth hex bore design and after a couple searches I quickly found a blog dedicated to it. I just bookmarked it and plan to read through this one. Check their site out: https://researchpress.uk/category/resea ... bore-blog/

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[adavis]

The cylindro-conoidal bullet was invented by Captain John Norton. Captain Norton, previously of the 34th Regiment, was the first to apply the percussion principle to shells for small arms in 1824. He developed an elongated bullet and shell for rifles, where the bullet was shaped exactly like the Minie bullet, including features to engage with the barrel's rifling grooves.

Captain Norton: "It is interesting to trace the progress of human invention, to observe the unaided struggles of genius, the frowns of fortune, the rebuffs of ignorant officials, 'the hope deferred,' the assumption, presumption, and jealousy of rival aspirants, until the name, and fame, and identity of the original inventor are mystified and overlaid by modern pretenders, and the public are left in the pleasing predicament of not known 'which is which.'"

In 1836, William Greener introduced a new type of bullet to the government for testing. This bullet:

Had an oval shape with a flat end and a hole almost going through it. Included a tapered plug made from lead and zinc, resembling a button, which was loosely inserted into the hole. When fired, the explosion would drive the plug into the bullet, making it expand to fit the barrel's rifling or close any gap (windage) in a musket.

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The results were impressive:

• Loading was three times faster than with traditional muskets.

• Accuracy at 350 yards was three times better than with older bullets.

However, the British Ordnance Board rejected Greener's bullet because it was "compound" or made of multiple parts, which they found objectionable.

Later, in the 1857-58 Army Service Estimates, Greener was acknowledged and awarded £1,000 for his pioneering work on what would become known as the Minie principle of bullet expansion.

Validation:

• Design and Testing: The description of Greener's bullet matches historical accounts of early expanding bullet designs, aiming to improve both the speed of loading and accuracy of firearms.

• Rejection and Later Recognition: The initial rejection due to the bullet's complexity is consistent with historical military conservatism towards new technologies. The later acknowledgment in 1857-58 reflects a change in perception after similar principles were adopted elsewhere, notably in France with the Minié ball.

• Technical Principle: The concept of an expanding bullet to fit rifling or reduce windage was revolutionary and directly influenced subsequent developments in bullet design, particularly the Minié ball, which saw widespread use.

• Performance Claims: While the exact numbers (like three times faster loading or three times better accuracy) might be hyperbolic or anecdotal without specific data, the general improvement in performance due to bullet design is historically validated.

[adavis]

The elongated bullet is much better than the round bullet, but there's debate on how long it should be compared to its width.

General Jacob, after deciding that the best shape was a mix of cylinder and cone, experimented to find the right proportions. He concluded:

• The cylindrical part and the conical part should each be 1.5 times the bullet's diameter, making the whole bullet 3 times the diameter long.

• The Enfield bullet is just over 1.75 times the diameter, the Whitworth (hexagonal) bullet is about 2.5 times, and the Whitworth tubular hexagonal is 3.5 times.

Keeping the bullet's axis in line with its path is key for reducing air resistance. If not, the bullet will spin on its shorter axis. A cone-shaped bullet moves through the air better than a round one or one with a blunt end. However, if the bullet is too pointed, its center of gravity shifts back, reducing its ability to penetrate materials. Interestingly, Mr. Whitworth found that for penetrating iron, a steel bullet with a flat, blunt end works better than one with a sharp point. Too much surface area increases friction and air resistance, which can decrease range.

Validation:

• Historical Context: The text reflects the technological evolution in bullet design during the mid-19th century, with a focus on accuracy and penetration. The names and designs mentioned, like the Enfield and Whitworth bullets, are historically accurate from the period of the American Civil War and British rifle advancements.

• Technical Accuracy: The observations about bullet shapes, aerodynamics, and penetration are consistent with known principles of ballistics at the time. The idea that a pointed bullet might not penetrate as well as one with a flat or blunt end due to center of gravity issues was indeed a concern, especially in early rifling and bullet design experiments.

Proportions: The proportions mentioned, while somewhat arbitrary in terms of exact numbers, reflect the real experimentation with bullet shapes. The actual optimal length-to-diameter ratio can vary based on the specific firearm and intended use, but these ratios are within the range discussed in historical contexts.

[adavis]

The statement in the previous topic about steel bullets with flat, blunt ends being better for penetrating iron than those with sharp points is nuanced and depends on several factors:

• Penetration Mechanics: The principle behind why a flat, blunt end might be better for penetrating hard materials like iron involves the distribution of force upon impact. A flat or blunt tip can distribute the kinetic energy over a larger area upon initial contact, potentially causing more stress or fracture in the target material before penetrating. This can lead to better performance in some scenarios where sheer force and energy transfer are more critical than the sharpness of the bullet's tip.

• Modern Ballistics: In contemporary contexts, bullet design for armor-piercing applications (which can include penetrating steel or iron) has evolved significantly. Modern armor-piercing rounds often use hardened cores (like tungsten or depleted uranium) with complex designs to achieve penetration. The shape of the bullet tip is just one factor; velocity, core material, and bullet construction (like jacketing, core separation, or sabot use) also play significant roles.

• Historical vs. Modern Insights: Historically, the observation by Whitworth would have been based on the technology and understanding of the time. With today's knowledge and materials science, the effectiveness of bullet design for penetration

• Material Hardness: The hardness of both the bullet and the target material matters. Modern bullets might use a hard core with a softer jacket that deforms on impact, maintaining the penetrative power of the core.

• Velocity: Higher velocities can overcome the disadvantages of a blunt tip by providing enough energy for penetration regardless of tip shape.

• Shape and Design: Bullet shapes like the "spitzer" (pointed) are designed for aerodynamics and might not be optimal for certain penetration tasks without considering the entire bullet's construction. However, for some applications, especially where maximum damage and energy transfer are needed over deep penetration, a flat tip might still be useful.

• Empirical Evidence: Recent studies and simulations might conclude differently based on specific conditions. For instance, a sharp point might aid in initiating penetration in some materials, whereas a flat tip might cause more immediate deformation in others.

In summary, while the historical observation by Whitworth might hold under certain conditions, especially with the materials and velocities available at the time, modern ballistics has expanded the understanding of bullet design for penetration. The effectiveness of a flat, blunt end versus a sharp point for penetrating iron can vary based on bullet construction, impact velocity, and the specific properties of the iron or steel being penetrated. Therefore, the statement above isn't universally true today but rather context-specific.

[adavis]

• Surface Area: The surface area of circles (or spheres) grows with the square of their diameter. So, if one ball is 2 inches wide and another is 4 inches, the larger ball faces four times more air resistance than the smaller one (since 4² = 16 and 2² = 4, the ratio of resistance is 4:16 or 1:4).

• Density and Resistance: When objects have the same shape, their ability to push through resistance (like air) depends on how dense they are. If spheres are made of the same stuff, the weight of the bigger sphere compared to the smaller one goes up by the cube of their diameters. So, if the diameters are in the ratio of 2 to 4, the weights (and thus the ability to overcome resistance) would be in the ratio of 8 to 64 (since 2³ = 8 and 4³ = 64).

• Advantage of Shape: Making a bullet longer instead of just bigger has benefits. If you take a bullet with the same diameter but stretch it until it weighs the same as a larger, round ball, it will face the same air resistance as the smaller ball but have the same power to push through that resistance as the bigger ball.
  
  Trade-off: However, this shape advantage comes with more friction because more of the bullet's surface contacts the air or the barrel.

Validation

• Surface Area Calculation: Correct; the area of a sphere or circle scales with the square of the diameter. This principle is fundamental in physics for calculating air resistance.

• Density and Volume: Also correct; the volume (and thus weight for a given material) of spheres scales with the cube of the diameter, affecting how they interact with air or other mediums.

• Elongation Advantage: The concept here is about aerodynamics. Elongating a projectile can reduce air resistance relative to its weight, a principle used in modern bullet design for efficiency. This idea was crucial in the development from spherical to conical or cylindrical projectiles.

• Friction: The mention of increased friction due to shape is accurate. While elongation can reduce air drag, it can increase friction within the barrel or with air if not designed correctly, which is why modern bullets often have rifling or specific designs to manage this.

The original text reflects early insights into ballistics, which have since been refined but fundamentally hold true. Modern advancements in bullet design continue to address these principles, balancing aerodynamics, penetration, and stability.

[adavis]

This is unrelated to the book but more a follow on question to ponder. Will two balls of same dimensions but different densities be impacted by air resistance differently? The air resistance on two balls of the same dimensions but different densities will be the same in terms of the force of drag they experience, but how that resistance affects their motion will differ due to their density.

• Air Resistance (Drag): Drag is determined by:
  Shape: Since the balls have the same dimensions, their shapes are identical, hence they have the same drag coefficient and surface area exposed to the air flow.

• Size: The diameter, and thus the cross-sectional area, is the same, leading to identical drag forces for a given speed in the same air density.

• Velocity: Drag increases with velocity, but if both balls are moving at the same speed, they'll encounter the same drag force.
  Density: Density affects:

• Mass: Higher density means more mass for the same volume. The mass of an object is crucial in determining how it responds to forces like drag.

• Acceleration: A denser ball (which means a heavier ball for the same size) will accelerate or decelerate less under the same drag force because acceleration is inversely proportional to mass (a = F/m where F is force and m is mass).

• Terminal Velocity: When falling through air, a denser ball will reach a higher terminal velocity because the gravitational force pulling it down is greater relative to the drag force. Terminal velocity is reached when the drag force equals the gravitational force.

• Impact of Drag on Motion:
  Deceleration: A less dense (lighter) ball will slow down more quickly under the same drag force because its mass is lower, making deceleration more pronounced.

• Speed Maintenance: A denser ball will maintain speed better against air resistance because its higher mass gives it more inertia.

• Energy Transfer: The energy (kinetic) to overcome or maintain speed against drag is related to mass (E = 0.5mv^2). Hence, a denser ball has more kinetic energy for the same speed, making it less affected in terms of speed reduction by drag.

In summary

• Air Resistance Force: Identical for balls of the same size and shape moving at the same speed, regardless of density.
  Effect on Motion: Differences in density lead to different responses to that drag. A denser ball will maintain speed better, decelerate less quickly, and achieve a higher terminal velocity than a less dense ball when subjected to the same air resistance.

Thus, while the drag force is the same, the practical impact of air resistance on the balls' movement through air varies with their density.

[adavis]

Experiments with Long Rifle Bullets in France:

In France, experiments were conducted with very long rifle bullets, some as long as five inches. These bullets offered great range and accuracy but caused excessive recoil. To manage this, the rifle's barrel needed to be heavier and stronger.

Henri-Gustave Delvigne was a French soldier and inventor known for his work on rifle technology. He invented a method that simplified the use of rifled guns by designing a rifle where the chamber was smaller than the bore, allowing the bullet to expand when rammed against the chamber, thus fitting the rifling grooves. This was an important step in the development of more accurate firearms.

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Captain Delvigne's Innovation:

• Captain Delvigne's conical bullet was characterized by a design that combined elements of both a cylinder and a cone, hence the term "cylindro-conical." Here are the key features based on historical descriptions:

• Shape: The bullet had a cylindrical body that transitioned into a conical or pointed tip. This shape was a significant departure from the spherical bullets used before, aiming to improve aerodynamics and thus the range and accuracy of the bullet.

• Hollow Base: Delvigne designed these bullets with a hollow base. This hollow base was intended to expand when the bullet was fired, allowing the lead to fill the rifling grooves of the barrel, thereby engaging the rifling for spin stabilization.

Delvigne's design was an important step towards modern bullet designs, though it had limitations, like the bullet's deformation potentially reducing its aerodynamic efficiency. His work laid groundwork for later, more successful designs.

Challenges and Improvements:

The challenge with hollow bullets was finding the right size for the cavity. Too large a cavity meant too much expansion, leading to high friction in the barrel. Too small, and no expansion occurred. Captain Minie is credited for adding an iron cup to the base of the bullet to control gas pressure and prevent it from escaping through the lead, a frequent issue before. Later, Minie added a groove around the bullet to help attach it to the cartridge or patch, which surprisingly influenced the bullet's precision significantly.

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Validation:

• The experimentation with long bullets and their effects on recoil and the need for stronger barrels are detailed in various historical accounts of 19th-century firearm development.

• Delvigne's and Norton's contributions to bullet design, particularly with hollow and expanding bullets, are well-documented in the context of early rifling technology.

• Minie's improvements, including the use of an iron cup and the addition of grooves, are pivotal developments in bullet technology, acknowledged in historical records of the Minié ball's evolution.

[adavis]

Claude-Etienne Minié was a French Army officer and inventor, born on February 13, 1804, and died on December 14, 1879. He is most famously known for his contributions to firearms technology, particularly his development of the Minié ball (or Minié bullet), which played a significant role in the evolution of rifled firearms during the 19th century. Here are some key points about him:

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• Military Career: Minié joined the French Army in 1822 and eventually rose to the rank of Captain. His experience in the military provided him with practical insights into the needs of firearms in combat situations.

• The Minié Ball: In the 1840s, Minié developed the Minié ball, which was an innovative type of bullet designed to expand upon firing to engage the rifling of the barrel. This design allowed for easier loading of rifled muskets, which previously required bullets to be precisely fitted or patched to match the rifling, a time-consuming process. The Minié ball was cylindrical with a hollow base, and it included a small iron cup at the base. When the gunpowder exploded, the expanding gas would force the base to expand, sealing the bullet against the rifling, thus improving both range and accuracy.

• Impact: The Minié ball was widely adopted by many armies, including the Union and Confederate forces during the American Civil War. Its use significantly increased the effectiveness of rifled muskets, transforming warfare by extending the range and accuracy of infantry weapons.

• Patents and Recognition: Minié obtained a patent for his bullet design in 1849. His invention was recognized for its contribution to military technology, although he did not receive significant financial benefits from it as the patent rights were somewhat exploited by others.

• Later Life: After his military service, Minié continued to work on various firearm improvements but did not achieve the same level of success or recognition as with his bullet design. He retired from the army with the rank of lieutenant colonel.

• Legacy: The Minié ball revolutionized infantry tactics and is considered one of the key innovations in firearms history before the widespread adoption of metallic cartridges. His name is often remembered in relation to the bullet that bears his name, which had a profound effect on military history.

Minié's work is a testament to how innovations in military technology can have extensive impacts on the conduct and outcomes of wars. His contributions are studied in the context of military history, ballistics, and the industrial development of weaponry.

[adavis]

Captain François Tamisier was a notable French artillery officer and politician of the 19th century, born on January 22, 1809, in Lons-le-Saunier, Jura, and died on May 20, 1880, in Paris.

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• Inventions in Ballistics: He is particularly remembered for his work on improving the performance of rifled guns. In 1841, he patented a method to enhance the accuracy of cylindro-conical shot by adding three sharp grooves, known as "cannelures," to the cylindrical part of the projectile. This innovation increased the bullet's stability in flight by enhancing its aerodynamic properties, similar to how fletching stabilizes an arrow. His method addressed stability issues in early rifled weapons like those developed by Delvigne.

• Political Career: Politically, Tamisier was a supporter of liberal ideas, associated with the Fourierist school of thought. He was elected as a representative for the Jura department to the French National Assembly in 1848 and again in 1849, and later served as a senator from 1876 until his death in 1880. He notably refused to hand over the arms of Vincennes Arsenal to the people during the February Revolution of 1848.

• Legacy: His contributions to artillery technology, particularly the development of rifling techniques, were significant. Although his grooved bullet system had its challenges with loading, it laid groundwork for later advancements, including the design of the Minié ball.

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• Here's how the grooved bullet works: If a bullet's center of gravity isn't exactly in its middle, it will try to keep its original direction. The grooves help manage air resistance, causing the bullet to move in a slight up-and-down motion, similar to an arrow's wobble when not shot very fast.

Validation:

• Historical Context: This passage discusses developments in bullet design, likely from the 19th century, focusing on attempts to improve bullet stability and accuracy.

Technical Accuracy:

• Center of Gravity Adjustment: Moving the center of gravity forward can indeed stabilize a projectile by reducing the likelihood of tumbling.

• Increased Resistance: Making the front of the bullet thicker does increase air drag, which was correctly identified as a problem.

• Grooves for Stabilization: The idea of grooves to manage air flow for stabilization is conceptually sound, though the specifics of how they function might be somewhat simplified or idealized in the explanation.

• Wobbling Motion: The description of the bullet's flight path with an oscillating or swinging motion due to air resistance on grooves is a basic explanation of gyroscopic precession or similar stabilizing dynamics in flight.

While the technical details are somewhat simplified, the essence of the narrative around bullet design evolution, particularly with respect to stability and resistance, appears to be historically plausible.

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• Bullet Orientation: The bullet in the image is shown along its trajectory (M, N) with its axis (A, B) not aligned perfectly with the trajectory, illustrating the bullet's oscillation or wobble in flight.

• Grooves: The illustration likely shows the grooves (E, D) at the base of the bullet. These grooves are meant to interact with the air to stabilize the bullet's flight, much like how a rudder stabilizes a ship.

• Air Resistance: The text explains how the grooves on the bullet's base (E) encounter less air resistance than those at the front (D), causing the bullet to oscillate. This is visually represented in the image by the bullet's angle relative to its trajectory, with the front (B, D) pointing upwards and the base (E) slightly misaligned.

• Oscillation: The description of the bullet's path where the front (B) dips below the line of flight (M, N) due to air resistance, and then rises again, is depicted in the image by the bullet's orientation and trajectory line.

• Trajectory (M, N): The dashed line represents the bullet's flight path, which isn't straight due to the stabilizing effect of the grooves causing the bullet to oscillate.

The illustration effectively captures the concept of how grooves on a bullet can influence its flight stability through interaction with air, similar to how a rudder corrects the course of a ship in water. The visual representation aids in understanding the book's explanation of bullet dynamics and the role of grooves in flight stabilization.

[adavis]

Lead for Rifle Bullets (at the time)

• Lead is the preferred material for rifle bullets due to its high specific gravity (11.35), which is lower than that of platinum (20.98), gold (19.26), and iridium (18.68), but still effective for bullets.

• For penetrating metal, bullets can have steel tips or be entirely made of steel if the rifle can handle it.

• If a denser material than lead becomes as affordable, it could improve bullet performance.

• Lead was the standard, especially for rifles using the expansion principle like the Enfield, where pure lead is crucial. However, for rifles like those by Jacob or Whitworth, adding tin or antimony to lead can prevent bullet deformation without damaging the rifle.

Bullet Trajectory and Accuracy:

• Benjamin Robins noted that bullets deviate not just downward due to gravity but also sideways due to other forces, contrary to the expectation that errors would only increase with distance if influenced solely by gravity.

Bullets follow a doubly curved path (downwards and sideways) because:

• Air resistance can act obliquely on the bullet, exacerbated by surface imperfections.

• The bullet's spin affects how it interacts with air, altering its path unpredictably based on the direction of spin and the air's resistance.

This explains why even well-made rifles, when fired from a stable position with precise adjustments, can't consistently hit the same spot at long ranges. The smaller the spread of bullet impacts, the better the rifle's accuracy.

Validation:

• The specific gravities mentioned for lead, platinum, gold, and iridium are correct.

• The discussion on bullet materials and their effects on performance aligns with historical practices in firearms technology, although contemporary manufacturing has moved beyond these materials for various reasons including cost, availability, and performance.

• insights on bullet trajectory from Benjamin Robins are foundational in ballistics, reflecting early understandings of how bullets travel through the air. His work helped lay the groundwork for modern ballistics, although today's understanding includes more complex aerodynamic forces and bullet designs.